There is geometry in the humming of the strings, there is music in the spacing of the spheres. - Pythagoras
String instruments produce sound by having taught strings that vibrate over a sound box, a hollow box with holes under the strings which contains trapped air that vibrates with the vibrations of the strings, thus amplifying the sound. The strings can be bowed, plucked, or struck. Bows used with orchestral strings are made from very tightly strung horsehair attached to a wooden stick and coated with a substance called rosin that helps the bow grip the strings.
A pitch played on a string instrument is determined by the length of the string that vibrates freely when it is played. Orchestral string instruments exist in a family that contains the violin, the highest in pitch; the viola, the tenor or next highest instrument; the violoncello (or cello), the baritone or medium low instrument; and the double bass, the lowest instrument. Pitch is determined on each individual instrument by a player stopping or pressing on a string at a precise point, thus pinning it to the neck of the instrument, to shorten the length of the string. A string that naturally vibrates at the pitch "e," then, when it is stopped by a player's finger at a certain point, will vibrate at, for example, the pitch "g" above the original "e." Modern orchestral strings have smooth necks. A player must learn exactly where to place their fingers on the strings in order to make clear pitches. Bowed string instruments from early eras had frets on the necks of the instruments like guitars have today. Players stopped the strings on these instruments by holding the string down against the fret bar with their fingers.
- Wide Pitch and Dynamic Range: Each instrument has approximately a four-octave range, and these instruments are able to play incredibly soft as well as very loud.
- Great Versatility: they have great agility and can play very rapid scale passages and quick staccato notes repetitively. Likewise, they can also play lyrical melodies and long sustained notes.
- Excellent Blending: Whether in a group or individually, the evenness of tone throughout and dynamic range create few balance problems when paired with other instruments.
- Continuous Playing: Unlike woodwind and brass instruments which require breath and rest, string players can play continuously for long periods of time.
- Tradition: The string section of the orchestra has typically provide foreground musical material such as melody, and traditionally, string are assigned more notes to play in orchestral music.
Open Strings
Each string instrument in the orchestra has four strings, known as "open strings." That means, these are the pitches that sound when the strings are not stopped by fingers. Note that the double bass is a transposing instrument; it sounds one octave lower than written.
Note that the violin, viola, and cello are tuned in 5ths (e.g., G-D-A-E) while the double bass is tuned in 4ths. The reason the double bass, or contrabass, is tuned in fourths has to do with the size of the instrument. The distance of the places on the fingerboard where fingers are placed is much further apart on the contrabass than on the other string instruments. If the strings were tuned in 5ths, then players would need very large hands to place their fingers.
This is probably obvious: an open string is the lowest sounding pitch for that string. As players place their fingers on the fingerboard and move toward the bridge, they are shortening the length of the vibrating string resulting in a higher pitch.
Typically, a note will be played on the nearest string below it. For example, on the violin the note F4 will most likely be played on the D string unless otherwise directed by the composer or arranger. For our F4 example, if the composer wrote Sul G, the performer would play the F4 on the G string. Obviously, F4 can only be played on the G string or the D string. It cannot be played on the A string or the E string because the open string is the lowest note of the string.
As the name indicates, this bowing results in the smooth connection of notes. For legato bowing, groups of notes are slurred together reducing the changes in bow direction.
When notes are not slurred, it is called detaché bowing because each note is bowed separately; however, this does not indicate that the notes should be "detached" or separated. Indeed, string players spend a great deal of time practicing smooth changes in bow direction in order to play legato.
In contrast to legato bowing, staccato bowing results in separated notes as the name implies. Staccato bowing may be "on-the-string" or "off-the-string." The latter occurs when the bow bounces across the string. It is important to note that staccato bowing also uses slurs to indicate bow direction.
Spiccato means "to separate." This bowing results in shorter notes than staccato bowing and is exclusively "off-the-string" bowing. Typically, this bowing is used in very fast passages where the dynamic level is not very loud. In French, the term sautillé (to leap) is used.
This is a bowing technique where the bow is stopped abruptly at the end of a note providing separation between that note and the following note. Like many bowing indications, martelé may be indicated by placing dots, accents, or dotted-accents over notes.
Another "off-the-string" bowing, this bow marking instructs the the player to bounce the bow very rapidly, usually on repeated notes. Ricochet, also called jeté in French music, is always done with a down bow. This bowing may be notated by placing dots over notes that are also slurred. Many times, a composer will also write ricochet above the gesture.
String instruments can be either bowed or plucked, or pizzicato. Bowing requires the player to pull the bow across the strings. The speed and the pressure placed on the string(s) affects the dynamic of the note. If it has not been indicated, then the player will assume that the passage is to be bowed.
Pizzicato (abbrev. pizz.), is placed at the beginning of a passage that should be plucked. Once pizzicato has been notated, the player will continue to pluck the strings until the direction arco appears. In other words, once pizzicato has been turned on by the composer or arranger, it must then be turned off as shown in Figure 1.1.
At this point, it may becoming clear that not everyone agrees on a "correct" way to indicate bowing. In fact, it's important to realize that notation of bowing in not standard. Bowing terminology is overly complicated at times and even string players don't always agree on the bowing notation! What's important is the understanding that bowing matters. It can dramatically affect the sound and meaning of a piece of music.
Regardless, it's important to understand that there are many ways to approach bowing.
String Choice
At first glance, string instruments may seem to have a limited timbral palette, but that simply is not the case. One simple way to alter the timbre of a string instrument is by directing the performer to play a passage on a particular string. For example, playing a violin passage that would normally be played on the A string on the G string will result in a sound where the upper overtones have less presence. This may sound less brittle or darker than if the passage were played on the A string. Additionally, playing a passage further up the fingerboard may, at times, make it easier for a string player to produce a strong vibrato and can result in a more expressive toneTo indicate on which string a passage should be played, simply write either "on G" or sul G at the beginning of the passage. The Italian word sul means "to play." In older notation, a roman numeral is often used to indicate the string (e.g., IV = G string on the violin); however, this practice is only very rarely used today and should be avoided.
Mute
The standard mute is a small wood device that fits onto the bridge; however, there are also specialty mutes made of rubber, plastic, and metal. Unless specified, the mute a player uses will be a standard wood mute. To use a mute, simply write with mute above the passage that should be muted. Just like other effects, the player must be instructed on when to remove the mute. Keep in mind that although mutes can typically be placed on the bridge or removed in a matter of seconds, the music must allow time for the player to make those changes.The sound of a muted string instrument is similar to sul tasto (see below) in that it reduces the presence of upper overtones. The sound is often described as "velvety" and "warm." Although the mute will reduce the volume a bit of the instrument, its primary purpose is to change the instrument's color. Muted passages can still be played loudly, but they may seem quieter or more distant due to the attenuation of upper frequencies.
| Mute Notation | ||
|---|---|---|
| with mute | remove mute | English |
| con sordino or con sord. | senza sordino or senza sord. | Italian |
| avec sourdine or sourdine | sans sourdine | French |
| mit Dämpfer | ohne Dämpfer | German |
Special Bowing Techniques
These terms below are indications on where to place the bow and how to move the bow. Like pizzicato, when these techniques are "turned on", they continue until a new direction is given. The word sul is placed before the bow placement: sul tasto, sul ponticello, sul flautando. Note that ponticellow is often abbreviated simply pont.-
sul tasto bow over the fingerboard. This indication will result in a sound with fewer upper overtones. This is similar to applying a lo-pass filter in music production.
sul ponticello: bow near the bridge. This indication will result in a sound with more upper overtones. It will be bright and brittle. This is similar to applying an extreme hi-pass filter in music production.
col legno: This technique means "with the wood." There are two types: col legno battuto and col legno tratto. The latter is used less frequently than col legno battuto which directs the player to strike the string with the wood of the bow. Perhaps the most famous example of this can be found at the beginning of Gustav Holsts "Mars, the Bringer of War" from The Planets. More rarely used is col legno tratto which directs the performer to draw the wood across the string in a bowing fashion. Most professional string players will carry a lower-quality bow for col legno passages.
sul flautando: This technique means "flute-like." In this case, the player will bow over the fingerboard, but also move the bow quickly and with very little pressure. The resulting sound is a reminiscent of a flute sound.
ordinario: Abbreviate ord., this indicates to the player to bow in the normal or default position. This term is used to "turn off" one of the previous bowing placements.
String Quartet No. 4 by Bartók
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snap pizzicato: This is also known as "Bartók Pizzicato" after the famous Hungarian composer, but he did not invent it. Perhaps the first appearance of the snap pizzicato occurs in Mahler's 7th Symphony where he write indicates near the end of the 3rd movement for the cello and bass sections to "so stark anreissen, dass die saiten an das holz anschlagen" ("pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood"). However, Bartók is likely the first person to use the symbol (circle with vertical line), seen in Figure 1.2, to indicate a pizzicato that is pulled away from the instrument in such a way that it strikes the fingerboard. The music in Figure 1.2 is from the 4th movement of Bartók's String Quartet No. 4. This movement is notable since it is played entirely pizzicato. Note the triple stops, discussed later in this chapter, written in the viola and cello.
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left-hand pizzicato: As the name indicates, the player uses their left hand to pluck the string. Notate this by placing a + above the note.
special effects: Many additional bowing effects such as bowing on the bridge, bowing on the tailpiece, and playing behind the bridge can be found in several works from the latter half of the 20th century and in modern scores today. Probably the first most notable work to utilize these techniques in a meaningful and profound way is Penderecki's Threnody for the Vicitms of Hiroshima. This composition is a good point of departure for further study of extended techniques for string instruments.
Tremolo
The tremolo in string playing is distinct from the other bow markings already discussed in that a string tremolo is more of either an effect or a way to simplify notation. We'll examine three types of tremolo: unmeasured, measured, and fingered.
unmeasured tremolo
In this type of tremolo, the bow is rapidly moved back and forth across the string(s). This type of tremolo is indicated by three bars attached to the note as in Figure 1.3
measured tremolo
The measured tremolo is not really a bow technique, but instead a rhythmic notation shorthand. In Figure 1.4, the second measure will sound exactly the same as the first measure.
fingered tremolo
The fingered tremolo is for all intents and purposes a trill that is greater than the interval of a second. It typically requires two notes on the same string. The player keeps the lower note held while another finger alternately presses and releases the upper-note very quickly. The bow moves across the string normally. For the violin and viola, the interval usually won't be more than a diminished fifth. Due to the size of the cello and contrabass, it is best to limit the fingered tremolo to a major third.
Figure 1.5 is an example of the fingered tremolo from the violin part in Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of the Faun.
E harmonic series with 8 partials
Natural Harmonics
The natural harmonic is produced by the player lightly touching the string at one its nodes. Per the harmonic series, these nodes occur at every whole number division of the string and correspond to the harmonic. For example, by touching the string lightly 1/2 way up the string, thereby dividing the string is half, the second partial (or first harmonic) will sound. Likewise, dividing the string in thirds will result in the third partial, in fourths the fourth partial, and so on.
This concept is important, so at the risk of redundancy we'll explore further examples. In Figure 1.6, let's imagine that the red line is the violin E string. Refer to Figure 1.7 for the E harmonic series. The top graphic in Figure 1.6 indicates that when the performer bows the string open, or without depressing the anywhere on the string with their left hand, the full string will vibrate at its full length. The resulting pitch will be the fundamental (1st partial), or the pitch E5. The second line, marked 2:1, indicates that if the player lightly touches their finger 1/2 way on the string, the 2nd partical, or E6 will sound. Looking at the bottom graphic marked 7:1, if the player divides the string into seven parts, the pitch that results is the very high D-8, a whole step higher than the range of a piano!
The nodes previously mentioned are any of the places where sine waves cross the string in Figure 1.6. This is probably obvious, but that means there is only place on the string where the player can divide the string in half; however, there are two nodes on the string where the player can divide the string into thirds (3:1). Obviously, as the ratio increases the performer will be able to produces the same pitch by lightly depressing along the string at many different nodes.
When the string is allowed to vibrate without the performer dividing the string as in the top graphic, the string vibrates at those divisions naturally. The points on the vibrating string where the string is stationary is the node. In Figure 1.6 this is represented at the spot where the waves intersect the string. This is the harmonic series in action.
For professional players, writing natural harmonics up to the 8th partial is fine; however, the sound can be quite difficult to control. For legible pitch and control, most consider up to the 5th partial, or 4th partical for young players, to be the limit.
Traditional notation for harmonics is to place a small circle over the note as shown in Figure 1.8. Most often, the player will determine the best node to use to produce the harmonic, but if desired the orchestrator can provide the string name the harmonic is to be played on by writing, for example, sul E. Although there is not always agreement on natural harmonics notation among players and composers, it is best to write the sounding pitch of the natural harmonic.
Assuming that Figure 1.8 is written for violin, notice that the second natural harmonic can be played a couple of different ways. The E6 could be played on the E string by dividing the string in 1/2 (2:1), or it could be played on the A string by touching a node dividing the string into thirds (3:1). In this case, regardless of how the performer plays the natural harmonic, the timbral difference will be negligible.
Artificial Harmonics
Artificial harmonics allow string instruments to play nearly any note as a harmonic. Artificial harmonics are produced when the player firmly depresses the string with one finger, and then lightly touches a node above that note with another finger. As you can see, despite the name these harmonics aren't really artificial at all. Instead, the length of the string is shortened when the performer firmly depresses the string. At that point, the performer has changed the length of the string that is allowed to vibrate, so to does the fundamental of the harmonic series change.
The notation for an artificial harmonics can be seen in Figure 1.9. The note that is firmly depressed by the performer is the fundamental of the harmonic series. The most common artificial harmonic is where the performer lightly touches the node a perfect fourth above the stopped note. This produces a harmonic on the 4th partial, therefore resulting in a pitch that is two octaves above the stopped note.
Other nodes that may be lightly touched above the stopped note include:
- Major 3rd: sounds two octaves + major 3rd above stopped note (5th partial).
- Minor 3rd: sounds two octaves + perfect 5th above stopped note (6th partial).
- Perfect 5th: sounds one octave + perfect 5th above stopped note (3rd partial). In Figure 1.9, the note in parentheses is the pitch that sounds from the notation.
"Raub" from Pierrot Lunaire by Arnold Schoenberg
String Quartet No. 4, op. 18 by Beethoven
Double Stops
All string instruments can play two notes simultaneously, and these double stops are the easiest of the multiple stops. This may seem obvious, but due to the curvature of the string instrument bridge, double-stopped notes must be on adjacent strings. Double stops can be played at any dynamic level and double stops that include an open string are very easy to play. Double stops that require two stopped notes must be within the reach of the performer's hand. It's important to understand that there is a big difference in sound between two string instruments playing one note each and two instruments playing double stops. Probably the most notable difference is that it is not possible to use vibrato on double stops.
Triple Stops
Triple stops cannot be produced softly since greater bow pressure is required to simultaneously maintain contact with all strings. Like all stops, the three notes must be on adjacent strings. The degree of difficulty in producing triple stops vary, but those that utilize open strings are significantly easier to play that those where all three are stopped. In some cases, the performer may break up the triple stop, playing the lowest two notes as a grace note and rolling up to the top note, or similarly they may play the bottom note and roll up to the top two notes. For clarity, it is best to write no arpeggio above the triple stop to ensure all three notes are played simultaneously.
Quadruple Stops
Quadruple stops where each stopped note sounds simultaneously can only be performed on violin and viola, and it requires the performer to use a very flexible bow. Like the other stops, the use of open strings makes it easier for the performer to play. Also like triple stops, quadruple stops will almost always be broken up, typically divided by the lowest two notes and the upper two notes.
Pizzicato Stops
Multiple stops can also be played pizzicato. With this indication the double, triple, or quadruple stop will always be arpeggiated from the low to high unless specified otherwise with an arrowed-arpeggio symbol.
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